TOEFL Academic Passage Practice 020The Development of Maya Civilization

By 300 B.C., during the Late Preclassic period, the Maya had established ceremonial centers of considerable size across Central America. These centers were key features of Maya culture, serving as focal points for their communities. However, these centers were not equivalent to what we think of as cities today. Although they included large and diverse structures, they lacked a significant permanent population. Scholars sometimes describe them as “vacant towns” because their residents primarily consisted of rulers, priests, their attendants, and a small number of artisans. The elite lived in grand houses or palaces near the centers, while the majority of peasants resided in modest wooden or thatch homes scattered in the surrounding countryside. At certain times, such as during major religious festivals—like those associated with crop planting—peasants would visit the centers to observe and participate in ceremonies. At other times, some peasants were summoned to assist in constructing new temples and palaces. They also provided food to sustain the elite in the ceremonial centers.

In return, the peasants received intangible benefits. Their contributions of labor and food were exchanged for a sense of spiritual and social order, which was crucial in their uncertain agricultural environment. Farming in the tropical lowlands was precarious; minor changes in weather patterns could destroy crops. Maya religion offered reassurance: by appeasing the gods, the peasants believed they could ensure bountiful harvests and general well-being.

Some scholars argue that these ceremonial centers were instrumental in the rise of Classic Maya civilization. Archaeologist William Haviland suggests that the religious importance of these centers attracted populations from surrounding areas, leading to agricultural intensification to sustain them. This growing complexity eventually gave rise to urbanized states. Haviland believes that, by 200 B.C., centers such as Tikal were transitioning into urban settlements, with other sites like Nakbé and El Mirador also showing early urban features.

Other researchers focus on the role of trade in the expansion of Maya centers. William Rathje theorizes that the Maya lowlands’ lack of resources, such as obsidian, salt, and grinding stones, necessitated trade with highland areas. According to Rathje, lowland centers like Tikal were deliberately expanded and made visually impressive to attract highland merchants. This process required additional artisans and laborers, which led to population growth, increased social stratification, and greater specialization. Critics of this theory, however, argue that the lowlands had local substitutes for many of these resources and that trade existed before the construction of monumental architecture.

Beyond religion and trade, competition between ceremonial centers may have also driven their evolution. As centers vied for control of agricultural land and populations, they developed more complex social, economic, and political systems to meet these pressures. This rivalry likely contributed to the transformation of these centers into urbanized hubs of Classic Maya civilization.